The Controversy and Concord of the Nevada Test Site
Brittany Herringshaw

Introduction         

One of the biggest nuclear debates lies only 65 miles northwest of Las Vegas.  The Nevada Test Site was claimed for the sole purpose of nuclear testing. It is an 880,000 acre restricted area site were over 900 tests have been conducted, as seen in figure one compared to other countries that also have done nuclear testing.

Figure 1.)
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Siesmic Verification of Nuclear Testing Treaties

While it is not currently an active test site there is plenty of history to be found. Originating back to 1951, this is one of the only testing sites in North America. There is currently an abundance of dispute over the future of the Nevada Test Site. No nuclear testing has taken place since 1992.

Birth of the Nuclear Age
As uranium fission was being explored so was the connection to weapons. Eventually becoming the birth of the nuclear age. When uranium-235 was determined to be the chain reaction required for a bomb, Roosevelt authorized construction of the first full-scale production plant. It had an initial investment of over $500 million (Fehner & Gosling). Taking into consideration the radioactivity included in the aftermath, as well as the bomb itself, this area was a prime continental location. Limiting the collateral damage and exposure to radiation on animals, plants and most importantly the persons located offsite. This land area has never been a prime site for human habitation. This guaranteed that even in the future there would be little development in the area.

Nellis Air Force Base
Another key role in placement of the Nevada Test Site was Nellis Air Force Base.  This is home to the United States Air Force Warfare Center. It is used as a chief location for the training of military aircrews. The entire base covers about 11,300 acres and is only 8 miles northeast of Las Vegas (Global Security). The base was once regarded as the largest weapons storage site in the United States. This was during the Cold World era, when atomic testing occurred at the Nevada Test Site. Nellis was chosen for many of the same reasons that the Nevada Test Site was later put here. These included the year-round flying times, and the clear weather in the area. Only 20 days a year, at the most, are limited by the weather. According to the United States Census Bureau, the total area of this base is 3.1 square miles. Located in the Mojave Desert, a small desert scrub biome, this area has limited rainfall, primarily in the winter.

Changes at the Nevada Test Site
The Nevada Test Site was chosen from a part of the Nellis Bombing and Gunnery Range, later known as Nellis Air Force Base. Construction began in October of 1950 and the very first nuclear test was carried out a mere 4 months later in January of 1951.  The base was originally planned to only be used for 18 weeks a year, at most. It could easily be seen from highway 95 and eventually became known as Mercury base camp. It’s location, in relation to the highway can be seen in figure 2.
Figure 2.)

 
Fehner, Terrence R., and F. G. Gosling. "Origins of the Nevada Test Site."

Many atmospheric tests were done until 1963 (Fehner & Gosling). After the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 atmospheric testing was banned but underground tests were still legal. As testing moved underground they got larger. This process continued until September 23, 1992, the date of the last test at the Nevada Test Site. Circumstances changed in 1996 when the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was negotiated internationally. The Senate never ratified the Ban Treaty, but the moratorium that was agreed upon in 1992 still remains in effect today (Nellis AFB).

The Treaty that Ended it All
The Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 is an important landmark in history. Following eight years of complex negotiations the treaty was signed by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. After the devastation that took place in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, World War II ended but the nuclear age was just beginning. Atomic bombs marked the beginning of the Cold War (USCEA). As radioactivity gained more attention from the public world leaders started an attempt to address this issue. Talk of a ban originated back in May of 1955. The enactment of a moratorium limited the amount of research on nuclear energy, but lasted only from November of 1958 to September of 1961. John F. Kennedy was a strong supporter of the ban. He believed that the banning of nuclear testing would put a stop to other countries obtaining nuclear weapons. This belief was a strong aspect of his campaign in 1960. After being elected he pledged to ensure that no testing would be done in the air. Kennedy trusted that the test ban would be one of the first steps in international nuclear disarmament.  Reluctantly Kennedy did announce that nuclear testing would recommence on April 25, 1962. This was a short-lived period of time. President Kennedy announced a period of negotiations with the Russians in June of 1963. After only 12 days of bargaining with the Russians in Moscow a complete ban on atmospheric, in space, and underwater testing was announced.  It was not until September of 1996 that the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was adopted. This Ban, signed by 71 nations, including some that possessed nuclear weapons, prohibited nuclear explosions of any kind (JFK Presidential Library). This also terminated all underground testing. Though President Clinton signed the treaty, it was never ratified. The United States still operates under the moratorium and conducts no type of nuclear testing.

Geology of the Nevada Test Site
What ties both the Air Force Base and the Test Site together is the geology of this site.  The characteristics of this area fit the necessities of both government aspects operated on these lands. The Nevada Test Site itself is larger than Rhode Island with varying terrain. The acreage is surrounded by mountain ranges with low-lying valleys in between. There are also mesas in the areas. These are created through volcanic activity that is elevated. They are usually exemplified by a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs. The earliest known deposits in this region are from the Paleozoic era. This dates them to 500 million years ago. There is approximately 30,000 feet of sedimentary and carbonate rock. These rocks were then folded during the Mesozoic era (Williams). The thrusts from volcanic activity then formed the mountains surrounding here. Intrusions then formed that left large areas of molten rock. As this rose through the crust the ranges were formed. Then, around 40 million year ago spreading occurred. In spreading the land is pulled apart. While some land went up others collapsed. The parts that caved in created six volcanic calderas. Ash flows from later eruptions have been found in these depressions with depths of 15,000 feet (What’s New).

Recent Volcanic Activity
More recent activity has created the landscapes that can be seen today.  Between 14 and 17 million years ago uplift created the basin that the Mojave Desert is in now. Water, aboveground, was also present in this area long ago (Williams). The deposits here are depicted in both alluvium and colluvium. Alluvium is sedimentary material deposited from flowing water while colluvium on the other hand is at the foot of a slope, created by gravitational forces causing accumulation. This area is characterized by the linear valleys and broad flat basins. There are three valleys surrounding the Nevada Test Site they are, Frenchman, Yucca and Jackass Flats. The four valleys here are the Pahute and Rainier Mesa, and Timber and Shoshone Mountain. They can be seen in figure 2.
Figure 2.)

<http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/>.

All the precipitation or drainage in this area flows into dry lakebeds, also known as playas. There is however no continuously flowing streams on the Nevada Test Site. This self-contained water system Water here is very important to the landscape and those that inhabit the area.

Water on the Nevada Test Site
Radioactivity is a constant reminder of the tests once done at the Nevada Test Site. Detectable levels of tritium have been found in the groundwater surrounding the area as recently as 2009. Being a radioactive form of hydrogen, this was a predictable consequence of the nuclear testing done on site. Water found in this water table however, is never used for drinking. The ground water can be found anywhere from 450 to 2,3000 feet deep, south to north respectively (Whipple). Ground water can generally be found in the alluvium and volcanic rocks above the aquifer. The aquifer is recharged from the northeast, by a regional flow. The discharge from the regional flow goes to Ash Meadows and Death Valley. At this time there is no cost effective way to remove this contamination from groundwater in such complex geology.

Yucca Mountain
Radioactive waste is generated when fuel collects in the nuclear reactors. They are highly polluted with the fission products, and must be disposed of properly. Recycling or reusing nuclear waste is far out of economic reach in the United States. It is much more financially viable to mine and process new uranium. This leaves the dilemma of what to do with the waste. When it comes to radioactive materials half-lives must be considered. A half-life is the amount of time need for radioactivity to be lessened to half of what the original intensity was. To be no longer considered a health hazard standard procedure deems 10 half-lives to be minimum (Factsheet). Considering such a long period of time lapse required, disposal of up most importance. That is where Yucca Mountain becomes important for storage. Congress declared in 1987 that Yucca Mountain would be further investigated to determine whether radioactive waste, at high-levels, could be properly disposed of there (Whipple). There is the added convenience of an existing nuclear storehouse.

Geology of Yucca Mountain
Located in an extremely dry region, Yucca Mountain is classified as being in the desert. Getting less than 15cm of precipitation a year, most water never even penetrates the ground. Hydrologists figure that less than 5% of this rainfall reaches the water table (Keller). The rest is either run-off, evaporated, or absorbed by the vegetation found in the desert climate. Made up of naturally welded volcanic ash, the rock of Yucca Mountain is densely compacted tuff as seen in figure 3.

Figure 3.)
http://www.tunneltalk.com/images/Yucca-Mountain/2-YuccaMountain-Fig1.jpg

While no country has yet to actually us deep geological repositories, the plan is to keep the tunnels far from the water table. This would prevent any leakage from penetrating into the water source. The welded tuff is considered to have high sorption ability. The mountain has many natural barriers securing the potential nuclear waste. These include the climate, movement of water downward, with no outward flowing possibility, the strong rock, and the depth of the water table. The plan originally was expected to hold up to 70,000 metrics tons or the nuclear wastes, on the contrary only test tunnels have been dug so far (Whipple). The plans for the mountain have been halted as many continue to protest again nuclear wastes being stored at this location.

Current Nuclear Testing Stance
Obama has had a large impact on Nuclear thoughts since he was inaugurated. He has been quoted as saying that he is going to “put an end to Cold War thinking.” Later when the ?Nuclear testing blahh blah was released it was said that the goal was to “reduce the role of nuclear weapons in our national security strategy.” Nuclear weapons as of now aren’t for protection but to deter anyone from an attack on the US or their allies. Obama’s recent release is the first time that the US has made a clear commitment not to use nuclear weapons.

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